The Unseen Art of Punctuation: A Taxi Driver's Essential Guide

In the bustling world of the UK's taxi services, clear communication is paramount. While drivers possess an innate understanding of routes, traffic, and customer service, the intricacies of written language can sometimes pose a challenge. This is where the often-overlooked skill of punctuation comes into play. From the initial booking to the final fare, precise punctuation ensures that messages are understood without ambiguity, fostering professionalism and efficiency. This comprehensive guide delves into the essential rules and common pitfalls of punctuation, specifically tailored for the needs of taxi drivers across the United Kingdom. Understanding these elements can elevate your communication, whether it's with dispatch, customers via text, or even in internal company memos.

What is Orthotypographical Correction?

Orthotypographical correction, often referred to as proofreading, is a critical phase in the editing process. It occurs after stylistic editing and before the final layout of any document, be it a digital booking confirmation or a printed company newsletter. It wouldn't make sense to meticulously correct spelling and typography only to have them altered by a subsequent style edit, as this would necessitate redoing the work. Even the most adept wordsmiths can overlook errors. The 'author's blindness' – the inability to spot one's own mistakes – is a common phenomenon, resulting in typographical and spelling errors within a manuscript. Just like with stylistic correction, achieving absolute perfection in a text is an elusive goal, even with professional intervention. The aim is to minimise errors to the greatest extent possible. Orthotypographical correction focuses on reducing spelling and typographical mistakes. It typically involves two main stages: Firstly, correcting spelling errors according to established linguistic standards (like those from the Royal Spanish Academy, RAE, though for UK English, the focus would be on style guides like the Oxford Style Manual). Secondly, performing typographical correction, which ensures the consistent and correct use of typographic symbols and marks. The norms of orthotypography, being derived from numerous sources rather than a single governing body, can sometimes lead to differing interpretations, all of which may be considered correct in their own right.

Specifically, orthotypographical correction addresses the following:

• Consistency in Typography: Ensuring uniformity in the typeface used throughout a document.
• Typeface Variants: Proper application of different font styles such as roman, italic, bold, small caps, expanded, condensed, superscript, subscript, and underlining.
• Widows and Orphans: Detecting and rectifying single words or short lines at the beginning or end of a paragraph that appear on a separate line from the rest of the paragraph.
• Syllabification and Hyphenation: Identifying repeated syllables at line breaks and incorrectly hyphenated words.
• Quotation Marks and Punctuation: Correct placement and use of punctuation within quotations.
• Punctuation of Textual and Extratextual Elements: Ensuring correct punctuation for elements like figure captions, tables, and graphs.
• Alignment Standards: Adhering to correct text alignment.
• Pagination: Rectifying incorrect page numbering.
• Spacing: Correcting improper use of white space.
• Title Formatting: Applying the correct rules for dividing and formatting titles.
• Character Transposition or Omission: Identifying and correcting swapped or missing characters.
• Misuse of Quotation Marks: Ensuring quotation marks are used correctly.
• Symbol, Abbreviation, and Figure Usage: Correct application of symbols, abbreviations, magnitudes, and figures.
• Punctuation Marks: Proper use of punctuation such as ellipsis, em dashes for dialogue, and commas for parenthetical remarks.
• Prefix Usage: Correct application of prefixes.
• Italics for Foreign Words: Using italics for loanwords and phrases from other languages.
• Citations and Footnotes: Proper placement and formatting of citations or footnotes.
• Bibliography Review: Ensuring the bibliography adheres to established standards.
• Index Consistency: Verifying that the index matches the content of the document in terms of titles and pagination.
• Graphic Symbols: Correct use of various graphic symbols.
• Enumerations: Proper formatting of lists and enumerations.

The Cost of Precision: Orthotypographical Correction Fees

Now, let's talk about the cost. The average price for orthotypographical correction typically ranges around £1.10 per 1,000 characters (including spaces). Some services may offer slightly lower rates. Pricing is usually based on character count rather than page count, as this provides a more accurate calculation. Factors like font type, size, and line spacing do not affect the character count. For instance, a novel of moderate length, say 500,000 characters, might cost approximately £500 for this service. While this might seem substantial, consider it an investment in the quality and professionalism of your communication. Cheaper options might exist, but they often come at the cost of expertise and thoroughness. It's always advisable to seek quotes from reputable professionals and to consider the value they bring to your work.

Unlike stylistic correction, which is highly recommended, orthotypographical correction is often considered mandatory for professional output. Neglecting this step can lead to a text riddled with errors, which can alienate readers and damage your reputation. If your budget allows, entrusting this task to a professional is the best course of action. If you decide to undertake it yourself, be prepared to dedicate significant time and attention, armed with a good style guide and a keen eye for detail. For optimal results and potentially cost savings, inquire about combined style and orthotypographical correction services, as many professionals offer discounted rates for bundled services.

Common Punctuation Errors for Independent Operators

Let's examine some of the most frequent punctuation errors encountered, particularly relevant for those operating independently, such as taxi drivers managing their own communications.

The Humble Full Stop (.)

The full stop, or period, is fundamental for marking the end of a sentence, paragraph, or complete thought. It should be placed immediately after the preceding word or punctuation mark, with a single space following before the next word, which should be capitalised. There are distinct uses:

• Full Stop and Sentence (Punto y seguido): Separates sentences within the same paragraph.
• Full Stop and Paragraph (Punto y aparte): Separates distinct paragraphs.
• Final Full Stop (Punto final): Marks the end of a written piece.

Specific Uses of the Full Stop:

• Abbreviations: Placed at the end of an abbreviation (e.g., Mr., Mrs., Dr.). If the abbreviation includes superscript letters, the full stop precedes them (e.g., M.ª del Carmen, 4.º). If an abbreviation ending in a full stop concludes a sentence, only one full stop is used.
• With Other Punctuation: A full stop is placed after closing quotation marks, parentheses, and em dashes (e.g., He said: "I won't do it." A) Alternatively, if the parenthetical remark concludes the sentence, the full stop follows the closing parenthesis: He left the office. (He felt relieved.)
• Time and Dates: Used to separate hours and minutes (e.g., 15.25 h) and, like a hyphen, to separate days, months, and years in dates (e.g., 03.06.2019).
• Decimal Points: While commas are preferred, full stops can be used to separate the integer from the decimal part (e.g., 1.90).

When NOT to Use a Full Stop:

• After a question mark or exclamation mark, unless followed by a closing parenthesis or quotation mark (e.g., Why did you touch it? You're mad. vs. Why did you touch it? (You're mad!)). Also, after closing quotation marks if they end the sentence: He asked me directly. "Why did you touch it?".
• After an ellipsis (...).
• To indicate years (e.g., 2019).
• For page numbers, addresses, and postcodes (e.g., page 2329; High Street, 102; postcode SW1A 0AA).
• In the numbering of articles, decrees, or laws (e.g., Article 1114 of the Regulation 1080/2018; The Act 19/2013).
• After symbols (e.g., It's 23.40 h).
• After titles, subtitles, articles, or chapters if they stand alone on a line (e.g., The Catcher in the Rye).
• After author names on covers or prologues, or in signatures. Generally, no full stop is used for standalone names on a line.

The Versatile Comma (,)

The comma signifies a brief pause and its use can be mandatory or at the writer's discretion. It's placed immediately after the preceding word or mark, with a space following before the next word or mark.

Key Uses of the Comma:

• Setting Off Parenthetical Remarks (Incisos): Enclosed by commas, these remarks can often be replaced by em dashes. Example: We saw John, Sarah's husband, and understood everything. The players, triumphant, began to pelt the crowd with balls.
• Separating Items or Clauses:
  • In enumerations: He bought a ball, a shirt, and a pair of boots. For incomplete enumerations: They found all sorts of animals: donkeys, seals, cows, chickens, giraffes…
  • Separating equivalent grammatical elements: He disagreed with his mother, his wife, his daughter. Don't expect anyone to follow you if you don't grab the drinks, load the ice yourself, and return the bottles.
  • Before vocatives (addressing someone): Hello, Peter, you've grown so much. It's late, little one, you must go to bed. Yes, father. Dear friend, this isn't about you.
  • Setting off interjections: Ouch, right in the face! I told her, what a shame!, but she wouldn't cover up.
  • When the verb is omitted (ellipsis): Dogs are loyal; cats, independent. Those who arrived late, to the back row.
  • Before correlative conjunctions like 'either...or', 'whether...or': We'll play the final this Sunday, either on your pitch or ours. Many people want to go to that restaurant, perhaps for its food, perhaps for its service.
  • Before 'or', 'either', 'whether': When I wanted to see her, I always made excuses, either her husband was home, or she had to work.
  • Juxtaposed clauses with distributive meaning: Some ate chicken, others beef, most went for the lamb.
  • Recommended before 'except', 'save', 'but': They eat everything, except tuna. I don't want to see him again, unless he comes with signed divorce papers. I never drink, except when I have a glass in my hand.
  • Before contrasting conjunctions like 'but', 'however', 'although', 'but rather': You don't have to do it, but don't be surprised if you get fired later.
  • Before consecutive conjunctions like 'so', 'therefore': You said to call you soon, so don't complain now.
  • Before explanatory causal clauses: They've arrived already, because the car is outside.
  • Between the two parts of 'not only...but also': His behaviour was criticised not only by his neighbours, but also by his family.
  • In simple sentences, when adverbial complements precede the verb: In the southern area of the country's largest city, people live in fear. This is unnecessary for short phrases: In the south, people live in fear.
  • In complex sentences, when a subordinate adverbial clause precedes the main clause: If you want to be happy, don't always say yes. This is unnecessary for short subordinate clauses: If I go, I don't pay.
  • After introductory conjunctions like 'that is', 'however', 'i.e.', 'furthermore': However, if you collect on time, you can watch the cartoons.
  • After adverbs that modify the entire sentence, like 'indeed', 'naturally': Indeed, Sergio is the chosen one.
  • After phrases like 'as for', 'regarding', 'in relation to': As for your joke, I don't even want to think about it; Regarding what I told you, you can forget it.
  • After conditional, final, or causal prepositional or adverbial phrases: In that case, we have nothing more to say. Despite everything, we continue to support you. Even so, it is insufficient.
  • Before and after pseudonyms when they follow a real name: Miguel Báez Spínola, 'Litri', left through the main exit.
  • Before and after an author's name if mentioned after the title of a work: The novel The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger, is his favourite book.
  • Between place and date: London, 5th June 2019.
  • Between day of the week and month: Wednesday, 13th May 2008.
  • Between street name and number: Baker Street, 221B.
  • Between collection name and volume number: Taxi Tales, Vol. 3.
  • After surnames when they precede the first name in alphabetical lists: Smith, John David.
  • Before conjunctions in complex lists separated by semicolons: In the north he had a cottage; in the capital, a flat; in the south, a villa, and the caravan, in the islands.
  • Before conjunctions when they link to the entire predicate, not just one element: He picked up the plate, the fork, and the knife, and went to his room.
  • Before conjunctions in series where the last member doesn't belong to the series itself: They repaired the windows, changed the oil, fitted the filters, and went on holiday.
  • Optionally, before a conjunction when it means 'but': I told him not to take the cold ones, and he played deaf.
  • Before or after conjunctions when there's an intervening parenthetical remark: My brother, who was asleep, and his son did not attend the christening. You can stay or, if you prefer, leave.

  When NOT to Use a Comma:

  • Between the subject and verb of a sentence, no matter how long, unless the sentence contains an enumeration ending in 'etc.' or a parenthetical remark follows the subject: People who reach the finish line after the pool opens will be disqualified from the competition. Dogs, cats, canaries, etc., are not allowed in the kitchen. My husband, believe it or not, is a chauvinist.
  • After 'but' when it precedes a question or exclamation: But why did you do it? But what on earth are you saying!
  • Before the conjunction 'that' when preceded by 'so', 'so much', or 'such': She was so beautiful that she seemed unattainable. He drank so much vodka that he ended up speaking Russian. Such was his frustration that he preferred to destroy the manuscript.
  • In inseparable pseudonyms: El Cid.

  The Semicolon (;)

  The semicolon indicates a pause longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop. It connects closely related independent clauses. Like other punctuation, it's placed directly after the preceding word, with a space following before the next word (which starts in lowercase). Its use is somewhat subjective; a full stop, comma, or even colon might also be appropriate depending on the context.

  • Complex Enumerations: Used to separate items in a list that already contain commas. Example: Each child will be placed in a sector: those in nursery 3 years, in the first; those in nursery 4 years, in the second; those in nursery 5 years, in the third. The attendees included the goalkeeper, Eduardo Presa; the centre forward, Javier Gumuruza; and the captain, Daniel Alonso.
  • Related Independent Clauses: For sentences that are independent but semantically linked. Example: It was never a hobby; we were truly committed to it. We had to work all night; we couldn't resist.
  • Before Connectors in Long Sentences: Used before words like 'but', 'however', 'therefore' in lengthy sentences. Example: I don't doubt you can climb as fast as the quickest; but your style leaves much to be desired. The directors' wives are usually permissive; however, that time they did not restrain their anger.
  • Lists on Separate Lines: Placed after items in a list on separate lines, except for the last item, which ends with a full stop.

  The Colon (:)

  The colon indicates a pause greater than a comma, used to draw the reader's attention. What follows the colon is directly related to what precedes it. It's written attached to the preceding text, with a space or a new line following.

  Uses of the Colon:

  • Introducing Explanatory Enumerations: On Monday I ate two pieces of fruit: a melon and a watermelon.
  • Explaining Preceding Elements: Short, dark, and with black eyes: that's what most Spanish women are like.
  • Introducing Quotes: Precedes quotations, which are then enclosed in quotation marks and start with a capital letter. Example: As Don Mariano said: "I like Catalans because they do things."
  • Opening Letters and Documents: Used in salutations. The word following the colon should be on a new line and start with a capital letter. Example: Dear Peter: I'm very eager to see you.
  • Introducing Examples: I've never met a more cunning person: if he can't park in his own bay, he calls a taxi to take him to the car.
  • Legal and Administrative Texts: Follows the verb introducing these texts. The commencement is on a separate line with an initial capital. This is the only instance where 'that' can follow a colon. Example: I DECLARE: That Mr. Ernesto Gaviria Santiago has achieved the highest score in the process…
  • Emphasis: To emphasise a point after an introductory phrase. Example: Well then: you won't see her again. In other words: you're an idiot.
  • Connecting Related Clauses: He was driving at 200 mph, without a seatbelt, and quite drunk: they took away his licence. We overdid the salt and the eggs were expired: the tortilla was bad.
  • Titles and Subtitles: To separate a general topic from a specific one in titles. Example: Ebook Layout: How to Create a Professional Ebook with Sigil Step-by-Step.

  Other Uses of the Colon:

  • Similar to the full stop, used to separate hours and minutes without a space. Example: The lorry arrived at 14:30 h.
  • As a division sign, with spaces before and after (can be replaced by a slash or the division symbol). Example: 8: 4 = 2.

  When NOT to Use a Colon:

  • To separate a preposition from the noun it introduces. Example: The award went to: Antonio Banderas. We saw the car of: Fernando Alonso.

  Question and Exclamation Marks (¿? ¡!)

  These are double marks (opening and closing) to indicate interrogative or exclamative tones. They are placed directly next to the enclosed words. A space is required before the opening mark and after the closing mark, unless another punctuation mark follows, in which case they are written consecutively. If the closing mark ends a sentence, it functions as a full stop, and the next word begins with a capital letter. If the opening mark does not begin the sentence, the first letter is lowercase. Vocatives and dependent clauses are placed outside the question/exclamation if at the beginning, and inside if at the end. Repeated short words with an exclamatory tone are enclosed within the same marks (e.g., Ha, ha, ha!). For expressing doubt or surprise, often ironically, the closing mark can be placed in parentheses (?). If a sentence is both interrogative and exclamative, either set of marks can be used, or both together (e.g., ¡Pero qué has hecho? or ¿Pero qué has hecho! or ¡¿Pero qué has hecho?!). In narrative, exclamation marks can be repeated for emphasis (!!!).

  Ellipsis (…)

  The ellipsis, three consecutive dots, indicates an unfinished thought or a pause. It's placed directly after the preceding word, with a space following unless another punctuation mark comes next. If it ends a sentence, the next word starts with a capital letter.

  • Temporary Pauses: I don't know if it's good or bad… I don't dare tell her. The assault squad has arrived… I suppose they'll be out quickly. If I see you here again…
  • Incomplete Sentences: To indicate the implied end of a statement. Example: In a land of La Mancha… He who clings to a good tree…
  • Replacing Long Titles: Used when a long title has already been mentioned. Example: Stieg Larsson's novel The Girl Who Dreamed of a Matchstick and a Can of Gasoline has once again surpassed all expectations. It's only been on sale for a week, and The Girl Who Dreamed… is number one on most European charts.
  • Avoiding Offensive Language: To omit profanity or inappropriate expressions. Example: You are a j…! You son of a… I don't want to see you again.
  • Leaving a Statement in Suspense: I told you not to come, you never listen… Go home.
  • Emphasising Text: By prolonging intonation. Example: Heroes… or villains… What do people know.
  • Enumerations: In place of 'etcetera'. Example: Dogs, cats, canaries…
  • Omitting Text: Enclosed in square brackets or parentheses [...] or (...) to omit part of a text. Example: "Many years later, facing the firing squad [...] his father took him to see the ice."
  • Missing Beginning of a Quote: A space is left between the ellipsis and the text. Example: "...lean, skinny nag and swift greyhound."
  • Missing End of a Quote: No space between the text and the ellipsis. Example: "Call me Ishmael. Some years ago—never mind how long precisely—having little or no money in my purse…".

  Ellipsis with Other Punctuation:

  • When an ellipsis ends a sentence, it functions as the final punctuation; no further full stop is added. Example: He is fair, intelligent, conciliatory… He will be re-elected.
  • If an abbreviation follows the ellipsis at the end of a sentence, the ellipsis is placed directly after the abbreviation's full stop. Example: In three years he became her boss, her lover, her Dr….
  • If the ellipsis is part of a sentence enclosed in exclamation or question marks, it goes inside if the phrase is incomplete and outside if it's complete. Example: ¡I didn't want you to go…! Never mind, forget it. Would he prefer to be with his father?... I find that very strange.

  Parentheses ()

  Parentheses enclose supplementary information and are placed directly next to the first and last letters of the enclosed text. A space is required before the opening parenthesis and after the closing one, or a punctuation mark. They are used for:

  • Clarifying Remarks: All the children's matches (there were three a week last year) will be played on the main pitch.
  • Providing Specific Data: St. Anthony's Day (13th June) is my birthday. His whole family is from Porto (Portugal). The ONCE lottery jackpot (National Organisation of the Blind Spanish) has doubled its prizes.
  • Alternatives to Slashes: Adding alternatives to the text. If they modify the word, they are attached; otherwise, they are separated by a space. Example: The day(s) of absence will be noted.
  • Stage Directions: For stage directions and asides in plays. Example: "Pilarín. (Ringing the bell.) Bring the pastries with the infusions." LEANDRO: Leave me alone, leave me alone, he'll never learn! (As he goes to hit Crispín, Crispín hides behind the Hosteller, who receives the blows.) CRISPIN: (Groaning.) Ow, ow, ow!
  • Highlighting List Items: Using letters or numbers, with either two parentheses or just the closing one. Example: The classification is created with the following genres: (a) Romance. (b) Crime. (c) Fantasy. (d) Horror.
  • Mathematical Formulas: Enclosing operations within parentheses. Example: [(5 + 1) × (4 + 2)] – (10 – 7).

  Parentheses with Other Punctuation:

  • If a punctuation mark follows the closing parenthesis, it is placed directly after it. Example: He won the league seven times (in a period of nine years), but never the European Cup. He finally managed to win the European Cup (it took ten years). He had been wanting it for ages.
  • If the text within parentheses constitutes a complete sentence, the full stop follows the closing parenthesis. Example: He waited until the clouds disappeared. (She must have been very worried.)

  Square Brackets []

  Similar to parentheses, square brackets enclose supplementary information. They are placed adjacent to the enclosed text, with a space preceding the opening bracket and following the closing one, or a punctuation mark.

  • Clarifications within Parentheses: The Rosario murders (the last was that of Marianela [1975-79], the youngest of the Pineda family) remain unsolved.
  • Mathematical Formulas: As seen earlier, square brackets enclose parenthetical operations: [(5 + 1) × (4 + 2)] – (10 – 7).
  • Indicating Modifications: To show changes or clarifications made to the original text. Example: We have more [vehicles] available in the Coslada tent. It was an ant[e]diluvian ordinance. [Original: antidiluvian].
  • Phonetic Transcriptions: To delimit phonetic transcriptions. Example: [bɪˈkʌm], phonetic transcription of become.

  Square Brackets with Other Punctuation:

  The rules for using square brackets with other punctuation are the same as those for parentheses.

  Bold Type

  Bold type (or heavy type) uses a thicker stroke to emphasise text. It should be used sparingly to avoid clutter.

  • Titles and Subtitles: Section 3. Style Correction. Style correction is, along with orthotypographical correction, one of the first things you'll need to do when you finish your manuscript.
  • Internal Numbering: 5.1 Skepticism condemns the most incredulous.
  • Dictionary Entries: Archetype. n. Original and primary model in an art or other thing.
  • Table and Chart Titles.
  • Key Information: Words or information that are particularly relevant and need highlighting. Example: A hill is a natural elevation of the land smaller than a mountain.
  • Headlines and Summaries: To highlight paragraphs as headlines, summaries, etc.
  • Questions in Interviews: Optionally, to distinguish questions within an interview.

  Italics

  Italics are slanted letters used to highlight the special nature of certain words or phrases and to denote quotations and expressions. In some cases, italics can be used interchangeably with quotation marks.

  • Foreign Words: Used for words from other languages (loanwords or Latinisms) that retain their original spelling, pronunciation, or meaning. Example: The best approach is to lay out the ebook. Marisa's curriculum vitae is brilliant. In specialised texts, italics can sometimes be omitted for commonly used foreign terms within that field. Example: Sigil is cross-platform and multilingual software.
  • Slang or Jargon: To indicate words belonging to slang or jargon. Example: You're the most 'gumias' guy I know.
  • Metalinguistic Use: To refer to a word as a word, not for its meaning. Example: The monosyllable 'el' is accented when it functions as a personal pronoun.
  • Improper or Incorrect Usage: To highlight words used incorrectly, colloquially, or vulgarly. Example: My son started demanding the 'papeto' (for pacifier). Stop touching my 'polla' for once. The highest unemployment rate is 'held' (for possessed) by young people.
  • Dialogue: If words characterise a character, they are kept in italics. Example: “It's nothing, sis-in-law, it's all lies”.
  • Neologisms or Coinages: To indicate newly created words. Example: My wife is a compulsive 'critic-of-parents'.
  • Mathematical or Physical Variables: For letters forming part of mathematical or physical variables. Example: The syllogism states that if a = b and b = c, then a = c.
  • Titles of Works: The Catcher in the Rye.
  • Titles of Shorter Works within Larger Ones: Titles of independent fragments within a larger work can be italicised or put in quotation marks if cited separately. Example: He wrote his interpretation of the Ode to the King of Harlem.
  • Titles within Titles: When a title includes another, the inner title is usually enclosed in French quotation marks: Fishing for “Moby Dick”.
  • Legal Texts: Titles of lengthy legal texts are italicised with the first letter capitalised: Organic Law 12/1985, of 27 November, on the Disciplinary Regime of the Armed Forces and State Security Corps.
  • Newspapers and Magazines: Titles of newspapers and magazines are italicised with significant initials capitalised: The Times, Daily Mail, The Guardian, The Sun.
  • Acronyms of Books or Periodicals: DPB (acronym for the Dictionary of Pan-Hispanic Problems).
  • Examples in Grammatical or Didactic Works.
  • Other Textual Fragments: Prefaces, dedications, stage directions, and other text segments with a specific function can also be italicised.

  Quotation Marks

  Quotation marks are double punctuation marks requiring opening and closing marks. There are three types: angle quotes (« »), double quotes (“ ”), and single quotes (‘ ’). Angle quotes are recommended for printed texts. Double quotes are used for quoting within a text that is already quoted. Single quotes are used for quoting within a text that is already quoted within another quoted text.

  • Textual Citations: Dr. Ezekiel clearly stated: "You must take them after a meal. Never on an empty stomach." For lengthy citations spanning multiple paragraphs, it's preferable to use indentation and a smaller font size instead of quotation marks.
  • Comments within Citations: If a comment is introduced within a quotation, it should be enclosed in em dashes. Example: "You must take them—said Dr. Ezekiel—after a meal. Never on an empty stomach."
  • Highlighting Words: Although italics are preferred, quotation marks can be used to indicate words that are colloquial, vulgar, foreign, Latin, or used incorrectly. Example: My son started demanding the "papeto". Stop touching my "polla" for once. The highest unemployment rate is "held" by young people. The best approach is to "layout" the ebook.
  • Linguistic Context: Used when referring to a word in a linguistic sense. Example: Whether it's an adverb or an adjective, "only" is never accented. In printed texts, italics are used: Whether it's an adverb or an adjective, only is never accented.
  • Word Meanings: In linguistic texts, single quotes enclose the meanings of terms. Example: The word 'concept' comes from the Latin conceptum 'to conceive'.
  • Titles of Parts of Larger Works: The story "Only" is part of the book Condemnation of a Castaway.

  Quotation Marks with Other Punctuation:

  • When the quoted text is part of a footnote, the call to the note is placed between the closing quotation mark and the full stop. Example: Steve Jobs said that "you can't connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them looking backwards"¹.

  The Em Dash (—)

  The em dash is a horizontal line considerably longer than a hyphen. It's used for setting off parenthetical remarks or for dialogue.

  • Setting Off Parenthetical Remarks: Two em dashes are used, one opening and one closing. Example: When we saw his parents —we called them that, but they were actually his uncles— we hid in the storage room. Commas or parentheses can also be used, depending on how independent the parenthetical part is from the main text.
  • Intervening Remarks in Parentheses: If you need more capacity (all plans start at 50 GB —even the basic one— and go up to 5 TB), do not hesitate to contact us.
  • Dialogue: Generally, an em dash is placed at the beginning of a character's speech without a space. Each piece of dialogue is on a new line. Example: —Some colleagues from your brother's work have arrived. —Tell them to come in, please.
  • Interjections within Dialogue: If an interjection is made within a dialogue and the dialogue continues, it's enclosed in em dashes. Example: —Some colleagues from your brother's work have arrived —Julia told me—. They are one of his bosses and Professor Checa.
  • Closing Interjections: If the interjection concludes the dialogue, only the opening em dash is used. Example: —Tell them to come in, please —I replied.
  • Attributing Dialogue: If the interjection is introduced by a verb of speech, it always starts with a lowercase letter, even if preceded by a punctuation mark that normally ends a sentence. Example: —What a lot of riff-raff! —exclaimed the social affairs delegate indignantly.
  • Punctuation after Interjections: If punctuation follows the interjection, it's placed after the em dash. Example: —What a lot of riff-raff! —exclaimed the social affairs delegate indignantly—. Get them all out of here.
  • Interjections Without Verbs of Speech: If the interjection is not introduced by a verb of speech, the dialogue ends with a full stop, and the interjection starts with a capital letter. Example: —I must do something. —He picked up the phone and dialled.
  • Continuing Dialogue After Interjection: If the dialogue continues after such an interjection, the full stop closing the interjection is placed after the em dash. Example: —I must do something. —He picked up the phone and dialled—. Send for the police.
  • Colons After Interjections: If a colon is required after the interjection, it also follows the em dash. Example: —On Tuesday we'll go for broke —said the manager, and added—: If we don't score in the first half hour, we'll advance to the next round.
  • Author's Comments in Quotes: To contain author's comments within a textual citation. Example: "It is of vital importance —said the captain— that the children remain with the rescue personnel."
  • Lists on Separate Lines: An em dash is used to list items on separate lines, with a space between the dash and the text. There are three ways to format this: 1. Start each item with a lowercase letter and end with a semicolon, except for the last item, which ends with a full stop. 2. For simple items, punctuation isn't necessary. 3. If the items are complete sentences, they usually start with a capital letter and end with a full stop.
  • Theatre Scripts: To separate a character's name from their dialogue. Example: Crespo.—Who goes there? Ortega.—Death.

  Capitalisation

  Capitalisation rules can be complex. Remember that capital letters should still carry accents when required by spelling rules, except for acronyms which are all caps (e.g., CIA, not CÍA).

  • All Caps: Used for book titles on covers (e.g., THE KOALA'S DREAM) and for objective verbs in legal and administrative texts (e.g., I HEREBY DECLARE, CERTIFIES, REQUESTS…).
  • Initial Capital Letter: Used at the beginning of a paragraph or text, after a full stop, and after a closing question or exclamation mark if it functions as a full stop.
  • Proper Nouns: Names of people, animals, and places (e.g., Fernández, Pedro, Pluto, London).
  • Deities: God, Jehovah, Jupiter.
  • Nicknames and Pseudonyms: Eleuterio Sánchez Rodríguez, 'El Lute'.
  • Personified Abstract Concepts: Good, Evil, Death (when used allegorically).
  • Toponyms: Designations replacing actual place names (e.g., the Eternal City for Rome).
  • Celestial Bodies: Galaxies, stars, constellations, planets, and satellites (e.g., the Milky Way, Saturn, the Pole Star).
  • Zodiac Signs and their Iconographic Representations: Libra, Scales, Pisces, Fish.
  • Organisations, Institutions, Buildings, Monuments, Political Parties: The Army, the University, the White House, the Prado Museum, the Ministry of Economy and Employment.
  • Sacred Books: The Quran, the Bible.
  • Periodicals: The Times, Daily Sports, Interviú.
  • Titles of Creations: The Seven Samurai, The Catcher in the Rye, The Garden of Earthly Delights.
  • Official Holidays: Christmas, New Year's Eve, Easter Week.
  • Devotions to the Virgin Mary and related Festivals: Our Lady of Rocío, Rocío.
  • Brand Names: Danone, Adidas, Sony.
  • Official Awards: The Nobel Prize, the Goya Awards.
  • Scientific Disciplines: When referring to them as a field of study. Example: She graduated in Medicine. I'm going to enrol in Language and Literature.
  • Historical Periods: Prehistory, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance.
  • Roman Numerals: I, V, X, L, C.
  • Titles with Abbreviations: Mr. for Mister, Dr. for Doctor.

  Small Caps (Versalita)

  Small caps are capital letters rendered at the size of lowercase letters. Their use is often optional and can help balance text. They are also used to highlight words or phrases where bold or italics are not indicated.

  • Replacing Capitalisation: In Roman numerals (e.g., Century XII).
  • Alternating with Bold: In table and chart titles.
  • Chapter Titles: Either respecting initial capitals or using all small caps.
  • Highlighting Text: In the surnames of bibliographical references or indexes. In author names in citations and prologues. For character names in theatre dialogues.

  Superscript

  Superscript (or superior) is a smaller-than-normal letter placed above the writing line.

  • Abbreviations: In some contracted abbreviations (e.g., D.ª, C.ía, 1.º).
  • Footnotes: It is a Greco-Roman relic² from his Italian ancestors*.
  • Scientific Notation: xⁿ⁺¹, f⁵(x).

  Subscript

  Subscript is a smaller-than-normal letter placed below the writing line.

  • Scientific Notation: For chemical and mathematical formulas, and vitamin nomenclature (e.g., H₂O₂. p⁵ + p³ + aᵐ⁻² = 3. It is important to note that Vitamin B₃ is water-soluble.).

  Abbreviations

  An abbreviation is a shortened representation of a word or phrase, omitting at least two letters. A full stop is placed at the end, except when a slash is used (e.g., c/ for calle/street). If an abbreviation ends a paragraph, its full stop also serves as the sentence's final stop. Accents are retained if present in the original word (e.g., anál. for analysis, pág. for page). Abbreviations use capitals if the original word does (e.g., R. for Royal Highness). If an abbreviation uses a single letter for a plural word, the letter is repeated (e.g., U.S. for United States). If an abbreviation uses a superscript letter, a full stop precedes it (e.g., Mrs. for Mrs.). Abbreviations can be formed by truncation (omitting letters from the end, e.g., art. for article; plural: arts.) or contraction (omitting letters from the middle, e.g., admón. for administration; plural: Dres. for doctors). Feminine forms might use a superscript or regular 'a' (e.g., Sra. or Sr.ª for señora/Mrs.).

  Numbers

  When writing numbers:

  • Thousands Separator: Numbers with more than four digits should be grouped in threes from the right, separated by spaces, not full stops (e.g., There are 5 648 214 natives in the region).
  • Four-Digit Numbers: No space or full stop is needed (e.g., There are 5214 natives in the region).
  • Exceptions: No spaces or full stops are used for years, page numbers, postcodes, street numbers, decrees, laws, and legal articles (e.g., He was born in 1974. You can read it on page 2118. That district's postcode is 28014. He lives at 1004 Oxford Street).
  • Superscript Letters: A full stop is placed between superscript letters (e.g., We qualified in 2.ª position).

  When to Use Numbers:

  • When more than three words are needed to represent a number in letters (e.g., This year, 15,818 administrative assistant positions will be filled).
  • When there is a decimal (e.g., The average exceeded 3.5 children per family).
  • For percentages above ten (e.g., 14% of the guests bought the watches). For percentages below ten, letters or numbers can be used interchangeably (e.g., 6% of the time ended in five. Six percent of the time ended in five).
  • When referring to units of measurement with their symbol (e.g., There are 2 km left to cross the finish line).
  • When accompanying the noun they refer to (e.g., They've reached number 1 on the bestsellers list. Hotels do not have room 13).

  When to Use Letters Instead of Numbers:

  • When the number can be written as a single word (zero to twenty-nine, tens, and hundreds). Example: I have published six novels. I am fifty years old. That book was written three hundred years ago.
  • For round numbers representable by two words (e.g., The match was watched by four million people. He sold ten million copies of his first novel).
  • For numbers representable by two words joined by 'and' (e.g., My uncle died at ninety-nine years old. We will be able to obtain the qualification in thirty-six months).
  • When a number is part of a series containing more complex numbers, all should be written as numbers (e.g., Last year, 20 children, 50 women, and 85,790 men signed up).
  • Use letters for approximate figures (e.g., I think they arrived in nineteen seventy-five. There were about five hundred and twenty thousand people listening to the speech).

  And that's all! With this understanding of punctuation, you're well-equipped to refine your written communications, ensuring clarity and professionalism in every interaction. Now, all that's left is to design your cover, and you can self-publish your book!

  What importance do you place on orthotypographical correction? Do you entrust it to a professional or do it yourself?

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